1: Fluid Flow. 2
Velocity head ............................................................ 3
Equivalent length ...................................................... 4
Two-phase flow ........................................................ 7
Sonic velocity ......................................................... 12
Metering ................................................................. 12
Control valves ........................................................ 13
Safety relief valves ................................................. 16
Piping pressure drop ..................................................
Recommended velocities .......................................... 5
Compressible flow .................................................... 9
2: Heat Exchangers. 19
TEMA ..................................................................... 20
Selection guides ...................................................... 24
Pressure drop shell and tube .................................. 27
Temperature difference ........................................... 29
Shell diameter ......................................................... 30
Shellside velocity maximum .................................. 30
Nozzle velocity maximum ..................................... 3 1
Heat transfer coefficients ........................................ 3 1
Fouling resistances ................................................. 38
Metal resistances .................................................... 40
Vacuuni condensers ................................................ 42
Air-cooled heat exchangers: forced vs
induced draft ....................................................... 42
Air-cooled heat exchangers: psessure drop
air side ................................................................ 43
Air-cooled heat exchangers: rough rating ..............4 4
Air-cooled heat exchangers: temperature
control ................................................................. 46
Miscellaneous rules of thumb ................................ 48
Introduction ............................................................ 50
Relative volatility ................................................... 50
Minimum reflux ...................................................... 51
Minimum stages ..................................................... 52
Actual reflux and actual theoretical stages ............ 52
Actual trays ............................................................ 54
Reflux to feed ratio ................................................ 53
Graphical methods .................................................. 54
Tray efficiency ..........................................................
Diameter of bubble cap trays ................................. 59
..
Diameter of sieve/valve trays (F factorj ................6 0
Diameter of sievehralve trays (Smith) ...................6 1
Diameter of sievehlve trays (Lieberman) ...........6 3
Diameter of ballast trays ........................................ 63
Diameter of fractionators . general ......................... 65
Control schemes ..................................................... 65
Optimization techniques ......................................... 69
Reboilers ................................................................. 72
Packed columns ...................................................... 76
4: Absorbers. 97
Introduction ............................................................ 98
Hydrocarbon absorber design ................................ 98
Hydrocarbon absorbers . optimization .................. 100
Inorganic type ....................................................... 101
5: Pumps. 104
Affinity laws ......................................................... 105
Efficienc ................................................................ 105
Minimum fl0.c. ...................................................... 105
General suction system ........................................ 106
Suction system NPSH available .......................... 107
Horsepower ........................................................... 105
Suction system NPSH for studies ........................ 108
Suction system NPSH with dissolved gas ........... 109
Larger impeller ..................................................... 109
Construction materials .......................................... 109Ranges of application ........................................... 11 3
Generalized Z ....................................................... 11 3
Generalized K ....................................................... 114
Horsepower calculation ........................................ 1 15
Efficiencp .............................................................. 119
Temperature rise ................................................... 121
Surge controls ....................................................... 12 1
7: Drivers. 122
Motors: efficiency ................................................. 123
Motors: starter sizes ............................................. 124
Motors: service factor .......................................... 124
Motors: useful equations ...................................... 125
Motors: relative costs ........................................... 125
Motors: overloading ............................................. 126
Steam turbines: steam rate ................................... 126
Steam turbines: efficiency .................................... 126
Gas turbines: fuel rates ......................................... 127
Gas engines: fuel rates ......................................... 129
Gas expanders: available energy .......................... 129
8: SeparatorslAccumulators. 1 30
Liquid residence time ........................................... 13 1
Vapor residence time ............................................ 132
VaporAiquid calculation method .......................... 133
LiquidAiquid calculation method ......................... 135
Pressure drop ........................................................ 135
Vessel thickness .................................................... 136
Gas scrubbers ....................................................... 136
Reflux drums ........................................................ 136
General vessel design tips .................................... 137
9: Boilers. 138
Power plants ......................................................... 139
Controls ................................................................ 139
Thermal efficiency ................................................ 140
Impurities in water ............................................... 145
Conductivity versus dissolved solids ................... 147
Silica in steam ...................................................... 148
Caustic embrittlement .......................................... 148
Waste heat ............................................................. 150
10: Cooling Towers. 153
System balances ................................................... 154
Temperature data .................................................. 154
Performance .......................................................... 156
Performance estimate: a cast history ................... 158
Transfer units ........................................................ 158
S E C T I O N T W O
Process Design 161
11: Refrigeration. 162
Types of systems .................................................. 163
Estimating horsepower per ton ............................ 163
Horsepower and condenser duty for specific
refrigerants ........................................................ 164
Refrigerant replacements ...................................... 182
Ethylene/propylene cascaded system ................... 183
Ammonia absorption type utilities
Steam jet type utilities requirements .................... 183
requirements ..................................................... 186
12: Gas Treating. 187
Introduction .......................................................... 188
Gas treating processes .......................................... 188
Reaction type gas treating .................................... 190
Physical solvent gas treating ................................ 191
Solution batch type ............................................... 192
Bed batch type ...................................................... 193
PhysicaVchemical type ......................................... 191
Carbonate type ...................................................... 192
Stack gas enthalpy ................................................ 141
Stack gas quantity ................................................ 142
Steam drum stability ............................................ 143
Deaerator venting ................................................. 144
Water alkalinity .................................................... 145
Blowdown control ................................................ 145
13: ~aCUUms ystems. 194
Vacuum jets .......................................................... 195
Typical jet systems ............................................... 196
Steam supply ........................................................ 197Measuring air leakage .......................................... 198
Design recommendations ..................................... 199
Ejector specification sheet .................................... 200
Time to evacuate .................................................. 198
14: Pneumatic Conveying. 202
Types of systems .................................................. 203
Differential pressures ........................................... 204
Equipment si.z.in g .................................................. 204
15: Blending. 206
Single-stage mixers .............................................. 207
Multistage mixers ................................................. 207
Gadliquid contacting ............................................ 208
Liquid/liquid mixing ............................................ 208
Liquidkolid mixing .............................................. 208
Mixer applications ................................................ 209
Shrouded blending nozzle .................................... 210
Vapor formation rate for tank filling .................... 210
S E C T I O N T H R E E
Plant Design 21 1
16: Process Evaluation. 21 2
Introduction .......................................................... 2 13
Study definition .................................................... 2 13
Process definition ................................................. 2 15
Battery limits specifications ................................. 222
Offsite specifications ............................................ 226
Capital investments .............................................. 230
Operating costs ..................................................... 237
Economics ............................................................ 240
Financing .............................................................. 244
67: Reliability. 247
18: Metallurgy. 249
Embrittlement ........................................................ 250
Stress-corrosion cracking ..................................... 256
Hydrogen attack ................................................... 257
Pitting corrosion ................................................... 259
Creep and creep-rupture life ................................ 260
Metal dusting ........................................................ 262
Naphthenic acid corrosion ................................... 264
Fuel ash corrosion ................................................ 265
Thermal fatigue .................................................... 267
Abrasive wear ....................................................... 269
Pipeline toughness ................................................ 270
Common corrosion mistakes ................................ 271
19: Safety. 272
Estimating LEL and flash ..................................... 273
Tank blanketing .................................................... 273
Equipment purging ............................................... 275
Static charge from fluid flow ............................... 276
Mixture flammability ............................................ 279
Relief manifolds ................................................... 282
Natural ventilation ................................................ 288
20: Controls. 289
Introduction .......................................................... 290
Extra capacity for process control ....................... 290
Controller limitations .......................................... 291
False economy ...................................................... 292
Definitions of control modes ................................ 292
Control mode comparisons .................................. 292
Control mode vs application ................................ 292
Pneumatic vs electronic controls ......................... 293
Process chromatographs ....................................... 294
S E C T I O N F O U R
Operations 285
21 : Troubleshooting. 296
Introduction .......................................................... 297
Fractionation: initial checklists ............................ 297
Fractionation: Troubleshooting checklist ............. 299
Fractionation: operating problems ....................... 301
Fractionation: mechanical problems .................... 307
troubleshooting ................................................. 311
Fractionation: “Normal” parameters .................... 312Fluid flow ............................................................. 313
Firetube heaters .................................................... 317
Gas treating .......................................................... 319
Measurement ........................................................ 325
Refrigeration ......................................................... 316
Safety relief valves ............................................... 318
Compressors ......................................................... 323
22: Startup. 326
Introduction .......................................................... 327
Probable causes of trouble in controls ................. 328
Checklists ............................................................. 330
Settings for controls ............................................. 327
Autoignition temperature ..................................... 371
Gibbs free energy of formation ............................ 376
New refrigerants ................................................... 386
26: Approximate Conversion Factors. 387
Approximate conversion factors .......................... 388
Appendixes 389
Appendix 1: Shortcut Equipment Design
Methods.0verview. 390
23: Energy Conservation. 334
Appendix 2: Geographic Information Systems. 392
Target excess oxygen ........................................... 335
Stack heat loss ...................................................... 336
Stack gas dew point ............................................. 336
Equivalent fuel values .......................................... 338
Heat recovery systems ......................................... 339
Process efficiency ................................................. 340
Steam traps ........................................................... 341
Gas expanders ...................................................... 343
Fractionation ......................................................... 344
Insulating materials .............................................. 344
24: Process Modeling Using Linear Programming.
345
Process modeling using linear
programming .................................................... 346
25: Properties. 351
Introduction .......................................................... 352
Approximate physical properties ......................... 352
Viscosity ............................................................... 353
Surface tension ..................................................... 358
Gas diffusion coefficients ..................................... 358
Water and hydrocar~on.s.. .................................... 360
Natural gas hydrate temperature .......................... 364
Inorganic gases in petroleum ............................... 366
Relative humidity ................................................. 357
Appendix 3: Internet Ideas. 394
Appendix 4: Process Safety Management. 397
Appendix 5: Do-It-Yourself Shortcut Methods. 399
Appendix 6: Overview for Engineering Students. 406
Appendix 7: Modern Management Initiatives. 409
Appendix 8: Process Specification Sheets. 41 0
Vessel data sheet ................................................... 411
Shell and tube exchanger data sheet .................... 412
Double pipe (G-fin) exchanger data sheet ........... 413
Air-cooled (fin-fan) exchanger data sheet ........... 414
Direct fired heater data sheet ............................... 415
Centrifugal pump (horizontal or vertical)
data sheet .......................................................... 416
Pump (vertical turbine-can or propellor)
data sheet .......................................................... 417
Tank data sheet ..................................................... 418
Cooling tower data sheet ...................................... 419
Foam density ........................................................ 368
EquiITalent diameter .............................................. 369

نوشته شده توسط محمد صادق کریمی در جمعه پانزدهم مهر ۱۳۹۰ |